Was Saxon justice harsh and superstitious Essay Example

Was Saxon justice harsh and superstitious Essay Between AD500 and 1100 England changed form being a mass of small kingdoms into one united country. During these centuries, kings played a vital part in every aspect of government and especially in crime and punishment. A kings most important tasks were to defend his country from attacks and to make sure his laws were obeyed. Laws were made by kings after consulting nobles and bishops. At first, Laws had two main aims, to protect landowners property from damage or theft and to protect people from violence although freemen got more protection than slaves. Early Saxon kings allowed the victims of crimes to punish the criminal themselves. If someone was murdered, the family had the right to track down and kill the murderer. This right was known as the Blood Feud. There were two problems about this legal violence. Firstly, it often led to even more violence as families and their friends banded together to take revenge for an attack and then this led to another attack. Secondly, it did not protect people who did not want to use violence against those who had harmed them. Later kings abolished the Blood Feud and introduced money fines called wergilds for many crimes including some murders. The victims received compensation in money. The level of punishment was decided by the king, through his laws. This made further violence much less likely. Saxon laws were extremely detailed about fines that criminals had to pay. The wergild for killing a nobleman was 300 shillings. If the criminal could not afford to pay the fine, then he or she was sent into slavery. However, not all crimes were punished by fines. We will write a custom essay sample on Was Saxon justice harsh and superstitious specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Was Saxon justice harsh and superstitious specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Was Saxon justice harsh and superstitious specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Some serious crimes carried the death penalty treason against the king, arson and betraying your lord. Reoffenders were also punished harshly if they were caught. Punishments for regular offenders included mutilation, for example, cutting off a hand, ear or nose or putting out the eyes. Any accused person who did not come to court was Outlawed. This meant he no longer had the protection of the law and could be killed by anyone as a punishment. Prisons were only used for holding accused people before trial. Imprisonment was rarely used as a punishment because it was expensive. Gaolers would have to be paid and criminals would have to be fed. This was impossible at a time when kings only collected taxes for wars or to pay for other out of the ordinary events. There was no police force in Saxon England. In the early Saxon kingdoms people relied on their families to help them catch thieves or other wrongdoers. By the tenth century, kings had set up a different kind of self-help system known as a tithing. A tithing was a group of ten people. All males over the age of twelve had to belong to a tithing. This meant that they were responsible for each others behaviour. If a member of the tithing broke the law, the others had to bring him to court or pay the compensation fine to the victim. In a modern trial there are lawyers to prosecute and defend, and jury members must have no prior knowledge of the accused. By contrast, at a Saxon trial there were no lawyers to prosecute or defend the accused person. The accuser was the person who claimed to be the victim of the crime. The jury was also different. It was made up of men from the area who probably knew the accuser and the accused. Both the accused and the accuser told their version of events to the jury. It was then up to the jury to decide who was telling the truth. If there was no clear evidence (such as a witness having seen the crime take place) they used their experience of people concerned. If the jury felt the accuser was more honest in general than the accused, they swore an oath that the accused was guilty. The jurys oath taking was called Compurgation. There were times when the jury members could not agree with each other. This was usually in cases of theft or murder when there was no witness. Trial by ordeal was the solution to this problem. A twelfth-century law said that the ordeal of hot iron is not to be permitted except where the naked truth cannot otherwise be explored. Then God was asked to decide whether the accused person was guilty and the accused had to undergo trial by ordeal. Human beings might not know the truth but God certainly would! There were different kinds of trial by ordeal but whichever one was used; a careful religious ritual was followed. The person taking the ordeal had to fast for three days beforehand and hear mass in the church. As the ordeal by hot iron began the priest said these words: If you are innocent of this charge you may confidently receive this iron in your hand and the Lord, the justice judge, will free you, just as he snatched the three children from the burning fire. Trial by hot iron was usually taken by women. The accused had to carry a piece of red-hot iron for three metres. Her hand was then bandaged and unwrapped three days later. If the wound was healing cleanly without festering everyone would know that god was saying she was innocent. But if the wound was not healing cleanly God was saying she was guilty. Trial by hot water was usually taken my men. The accused put his hand into boiling water to pick up an object and lift it out. This might not be so easy. One of the earliest accounts of this ordeal describes how the accused plunged his right hand into the cauldron. In the bubbling it was not easy for him to grasp the little ring but at last he drew it out. The arm was then bandaged. Three days later the bandage was taken off. Again, the person was innocent if the wound was healing cleanly. Trial by cold water was also usually taken by men. People believed that the water was pure and so would reveal the truth. The accused was lowered into the water (a river or pond as close to the church as possible) on the end of a rope. The rope was knotted above the waist. If the person sank and the knot went below the surface then he was innocent because the pure water had been willing to let this innocent beneath its surface. However, if he and the knot floated then they believed the water was rejecting him because he was guilty. Trial by consecrated bread was taken by priests. The priest first had to pray, asking that he be choked by the bread if he lied. Then he had to eat a piece of consecrated bread. If he choked then he was guilty because God would not let a sinner eat consecrated bread. This might seem a much more lenient ordeal but people believed that God was sure to punish a priest who lied and so it was seen as the most effective or all ordeals. I think that the Saxons used trial by ordeal as a means of finding out whether someone was guilty or not to deter other would be criminals from committing crime. In my opinion, Saxon trials were based on superstition rather than logic because the trials in order to ascertain whether the person was guilty were based on a chance result and were often biased of finding them guilty.

Culture Humility Essay Example

Culture Humility Essay Example Culture Humility Paper Culture Humility Paper What is the relevance of practicing cultural humility in the field of counseling? The relevance of practicing cultural humility in the field of counseling is that this practice builds trust in the counselor-client relationship, rather than the tearing down or stereotyping of that or other cultures. In helping professions it is mandatory to consider the needs of the client as well as factors that influence the clients needs or communication of needs. By practicing cultural humility in the field of counseling the ounselor understands the importance of being a life-long learner and that the continuous growing, learning, and considering the uniqueness of each individual is paramount for the counselors success. Cultural humility ensures a lifelong commitment to self-evaluation and self-critique, readdressing the power imbalances in the patient physician dynamic and to developing mutually beneficial and no paternalistic clinical and advocacy partnership with communities on behalf of the individuals and defined populations (Murray-Garcia Tervalon, 1998). Cultural humility in the field of counseling lessens the potential for cultural stereotyping. Cultural stereotyping is functioning under the belief that each culture can be defined and not taking into account the uniqueness of each individual. Different experiences in school with peers, as well as qualitative differences in how parents treat them will contribute to individual uniqueness (Sue Sue, 2008). This statement is basically conveying that not all people are the same, and not all people within a culture handle situations the same. Just because I may have the same beliefs, doesnt mean I may agree with the way things are handle within your particular household. Cultural humility allows for the counselor to act as a learner of the client and not as an expert. It allows for a counselor to seek to learn, rather than to impose their knowledge on individuals. Cultural humility comes from stepping away from the comfort zone of expert and acknowledging when we might not know what else to do (Austerlic, 2009). References Austerlic , S. (2009). Cultural humility and compassionate presence at the end of life. Retrieved from scu. edu/ethics/practicing/focusareas/medical/culturally- competent-care/chronic- Murray-Garcia, J. , Tervalon , M. (1998). Cultural humility versus cultural competence: A critical distinction in defining physician training outcomes in multicultural education. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 9(2), 117-125. Sue, D. W. , Sue, D. (2008). Counseling the culturally diverse, theory and practice. 5th ed. ). Hoboken: John Wiley Sons, Inc. What is the difference between cultural competence and cultural humility? Cultural competence and cultural humility could be misunderstood to be the same, but are quite different. Cultural competence is the ensuring that ones culture is being considered, whereas cultural humility is the ongoing practices of considering ones culture, confronting self-awareness, and constantly learning about the dynamic world in which we live in. The difference in that previous statement is that with competence, you are trying to make sure that steps are taken to ensure that a particular culture is recognized, hereas with humility, it is a norm to make sure that a culture is recognized and appreciated. Cultural competence is a conceptual framework to help providers 2009). Whereas cultural humility is the practice with no foreseeable end goal but instead a paradigm of understanding that ones culture is to be considered individually; that in order to effectively consider another there must first be complete consideration of ones self. Cultural humility comes from thinking outside the box and stepping away from the the sense of normalcy to acknowledging when we might not now what else to do (Austerlic, 2009). It is a process that requires humility as individuals continually engage in self-reflection and self-critique as lifelong learners and reflective practitioners (Murray-Garcia Tervalon, 1998). Cultural humility allows the counselor the moment of intense self-reflection and to use unconventional methods to understanding and truly learning from the client as an individual. Counselors can create opportunities to communicate respect to the client by honoring the clients unique way of perceiving and interacting with the world (Nystul, 010). References Underserved, 9(2), 117-125. Nystul, M. S. (2010). Introduction to counseling, an art and science perspective. Prentice Hall. What are your reflections about the video? The video Cultural Humility by Vivian Chavez was an intriguing video to say the least. The video made me self-reflect my thoughts and brought awareness to my incompetence in cultural awareness. The video truly made me consider and respect the importance of an idea of a culture, and one must be a learner of the individual as well as the culture. To Just understand how a culture impacts an individuals life does not encompass humility. At the beginning of the video diverse people described cultural humility in one word, a few that stood out were love and compassion. These words each play a role in cultural humility. Love focuses on the learning and seeking knowledge, and compassion relates to understanding the feeling of others and treating them with this understanding. As an African American male from in an inner city neighborhood, I am familiar with discrimination, I found after viewing this ilm that I was naive to the struggles of many other individuals in this country. I grew up feeling that I was proud of where I came from, not because of what I accomplished as a child from the hood making good of himself with guidance from parents who made sure of my success, but because I always felt that no one had it as tough as I had it growing up. I grew up with a chip on my shoulder. This video made me realize how selfish and inconsiderate I was, and made me realize that I didnt have it as worse as others.

The Womans Bible and Elizabeth Cady Stanton on Genesis

The Woman's Bible and Elizabeth Cady Stanton on Genesis In 1895, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and a committee of other women published The Womans Bible. In 1888, the Church of England published its Revised Version of the Bible, the first major revision in English since the Authorized Version of 1611, better known as the King James Bible. Dissatisfied with the translation and with the failure of the committee to consult with or include Biblical scholar Julia Smith, the reviewing committee published their comments on the Bible. Their intent was to highlight the small part of the Bible that focused on women, as well as to correct Biblical interpretation which they believed was biased unfairly against women. The committee did not consist of trained Biblical scholars, but rather interested women who took both Biblical study and womens rights seriously. Their individual commentaries, usually a few paragraphs about a group of related verses, were published though they did not always agree with one another, nor did they write with the same level of scholarship or writing skill. The commentary is less valuable as strictly academic Biblical scholarship, but far more valuable as it reflected the thought of many women (and men) of the time towards religion and the Bible. It probably goes without saying that the book met with considerable criticism for its liberal view on the Bible. An Excerpt Heres one small excerpt from The Womans Bible. [from: The Womans Bible, 1895/1898, Chapter II: Comments on Genesis, pp. 20-21.] As the account of the creation in the first chapter is in harmony with science, common sense, and the experience of mankind in natural laws, the inquiry naturally arises, why should there be two contradictory accounts in the same book, of the same event? It is fair to infer that the second version, which is found in some form in the different religions of all nations, is a mere allegory, symbolizing some mysterious conception of a highly imaginative editor. The first account dignifies woman as an important factor in the creation, equal in power and glory with man. The second makes her a mere afterthought. The world in good running order without her. The only reason for her advent being the solitude of man. There is something sublime in bringing order out of chaos; light out of darkness; giving each planet its place in the solar system; oceans and lands their limits; wholly inconsistent with a petty surgical operation, to find material for the mother of the, race. It is on this allegory that all the enemies of women rest, their battering rams, to prove her. inferiority. Accepting the view that man was prior in the creation, some Scriptural writers say that as the woman was of the man, therefore, her position should be one of subjection. Grant it, then as the historical fact is reversed in our day, and the man is now of the woman, shall his place be one of subjection? The equal position declared in the first account must prove more satisfactory to both sexes; created alike in the image of God -The Heavenly Mother and Father. Thus, the Old Testament, in the beginning, proclaims the simultaneous creation of man and woman, the eternity and equality of sex; and the New Testament echoes back through the centuries the individual sovereignty of woman growing out of this natural fact. Paul, in speaking of equality as the very soul and essence of Christianity, said, There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither bond nor free, there is neither male nor female; for ye are all one in Christ Jesus. With this recognition of the feminine element in the Godhead in the Old Testament, and this declaration of the equality of the sexes in the New, we may well wonder at the contemptible status woman occupies in the Christian Church of to-day. All the commentators and publicists writing on womans position, go through an immense amount of fine-spun metaphysical speculations, to prove her subordination in harmony with the Creators original design. It is evident that some wily writer, seeing the perfect equality of man and woman in the first chapter, felt it important for the dignity and dominion of man to effect womans subordination in some way. To do this a spirit of evil must be introduced, which at once proved itself stronger than the spirit of good, and mans supremacy was based on the downfall of all that had just been pronounced very good. This spirit of evil evidently existed before the supposed fall of man, hence woman was not the origin of sin as so often asserted. E. C. S.

Interesting topic would get your readers to know what your main point Essay

Interesting topic would get your readers to know what your main point - Essay Example In The Geography of Bliss, Weiner travels from east to west including India, Thailand, Netherlands, Switzerland, Bhutan, and Moldova among other countries to investigate their idea of happiness. Among the countries he visits, the Swiss have an interesting view of happiness. Democracy, moderation, and the absence of envy are the factors that drive happiness in this country. While investigating happiness according to the Swiss, Weiner’s expresses his impression of the place concerning their behavioral habits and lifestyle. The author personally relates his experiences and investigations in the narrative. In chapter two of the book, Weiner looks at the Swiss source of happiness. While on safari with his girlfriend, he comes across a Swiss couple and their perfectionist tendencies. The writer takes his time to go to Geneva and learn a little more about the Swiss. The first thing that strikes him is how clean the streets are and how sober and controlled the Swiss are. Accordingly, he questions their lifestyle, habits, and general behavior, as well as wonders what makes the Swiss tick. Secondly, Weiner asks why the Swiss are so humorless and serious all the time. Further, the author questions how they could be so disciplined and focused. Additionally, Weiner wonders if a link could exist between the Swiss lifestyle and habits, and the high suicidal rates. Moreover, he tries to understand why the Swiss do not find it appropriate to talk about money. Given these revelations, he inquires where the Swiss get their happiness. Consequently, Weiner alludes that they could probably get happines s from not generating envy in others. Notably, there is little or no privacy in Switzerland, and everyone knows their neighbor’s business. Hence, it is hard to understand how they find privacy because such a lifestyle is hard to handle. The Swiss have one activity that helps them unwind. Skiing is a sporting activity that they love. According to Weiner, they usually take time off

Wenz view on Consumption and Consumerism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Wenz view on Consumption and Consumerism - Essay Example According to Wenz, he distinguishes the aspects of both the anthropocentrism and non-anthropocentrism affecting the environmental standard of the economy. The mentalities of the people are usually centered toward the development of their standard of living and increase the per-capita income. Human beings forget to progress hand in hand with the nature. The materialistic desires of the industrialists and the high-income group of people erases out the thinking power to contribute to environment as such. The improvement of environment and the wildlife have become the least important factor in this race for monopolistic concentration of wealth. Wenz states that due to the far-stretching hands of market and extending the limits of consumerism, the valuable resources are getting scare and exploited gradually. This is also bringing frustration to buy a highly marketed good and correspondingly the level of smooth working is also interrupted. Every property, if publicly hold faces the â€Å" problem of commons†( â€Å"Reconciling environmental ethics and political value†). This leads to the damage and reduction of the property value. The sustainability of the environment receives a negative feedback in respect to the current and the future generation. With the loss of these natural resources, people in the present time period enjoys the benefits but finally leaving nothing for the upcoming generation in the next period. This thought, to work for the improvement of the social animals is causing harm to the long-term strategy of the economy. Even, in the view from the non-anthropocentric people who are engaged in the welfare of and endangered species yield economic and environmental conflicts in the society. It may happen that to save a particular species and promote the welfare of them might lead to the slaughtering of another species of plants or animals causing a misbalance in the

Behaviour Modification and Cognitive Processes of Learning

Behaviour Modification and Cognitive Processes of Learning Pillay Sheryl Amanda Ballen I will be discussing some important procedures which enable learning. Each and every human being learns any kind of behavior during their life span. There is no human being on earth who does not undergo the process of learning. There are various learning methods through which we obtain beliefs, approaches and skills (Skinner, 1971, cited in Ryckman,2013, p. 361) Here we shall discuss the principles of learning and their uses in daily life. I would like to also demonstrate how behavior modification compares with cognitive processes of learning. Learning What we mean when we say the word â€Å"learning†, we normally mean â€Å"thinking using the brain†. These concepts of learning are the central perspective in the Cognitive Learning Theory (CLT). Mental processes can be explained, as they are predisposed by both internal and external factors, which gradually bring about learning. Cognitive Learning Theory suggests that the different procedures regarding learning can be described by examining the mental processes first. It suggests that with actual cognitive processes, learning is simpler and new material can be placed in the memory for a long time. However, ineffective cognitive processes affect learning complications which can be seen in a person. Social Cognitive Theory (SLT) There are three variables in social cognitive theory, which are interconnected with each other, for learning to happen, which consist of: Personal factors Environmental factors Behavior factors An individual’s environmental interaction, beliefs, ideas and mental skills are influenced by outside factors such as a caring or uncaring parent, disturbing or healthy environment or a very hot or humid climate. The mental process in a person is affected by his behavior, and environmental interaction, which can also alter the way he thinks. One’s behavior can disturb and change the environment in which he or she lives in. Basic concepts of social learning are: Observational Learning Is a form of learning from other people, by means of observing their behavior in an effective way in order to gain knowledge and change behavior. Reproduction Is the method wherein there is a goal to successfully escalate the repeating of a behavior by means of changing the environment to a safer and more comfortable on , within reachable proximate, and to encourage him to remember the new information and behavior learned and to exercise them. Self-efficacy Is the way a person uses the newly learnt knowledge or behavior which he has learnt. Emotional coping is a good coping devices used against demanding environments and negative personal appearances can lead to operational learning, especially in adults Self – regulatory capability is the capability to regulator the behavior even within a negative environment. Classical and operant conditioning are two vital perceptions significant to behavioral psychology. While both result in learning, the procedure is quite different. To understand how each of these behavior modification methods can be used, it is also important to understand how classic conditioning and operant conditioning differ from one another. Classic Conditioning Was developed by the Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov, classic conditioning is the first type of learning wherein an organism responds to an environmental stimulus. Pavlov (1927) observed that in classic conditioning, the stimulus (S) triggers the response (R) of an organism. Within the exposure of the organism to the stimulus, reflex(Hermans et.al., 2006, cited in Weiten, 2014, p. 232). The unconditioned stimulus (US) is the stimulus which leads to an observable response without training. The unconditioned response (UR) is the response brought about by the unconditioned stimulus. It is an automatic and normal behavior. The conditioned stimulus (CR) is a stimulus that is original and has no meaning to the subject. Through learning it is paired with the unconditioned stimulus (US) and brings about the conditioned response. The conditioned response (CR) is the behavior caused by the condition stimulus in response to the (CS). It is usually anticipation of the (US). General Observation My brother was in matric and my little sister was two years old when I observed my brother’s behavior. He would often get very frustrated with my little sister when he tried to study (US) in order for him to study he use to give her a chocolate (UR) and she would smile and leave him to study. The chocolate is a positive reinforcement. Now six months later he has completed his matric and when she goes into his room she expects chocolate (CR). Now that my brother do not give her chocolate, when she goes into his room she begins to cry, and mom would get angry at my brother for making her cry. Mom do not realize that my brother has created a (CR) in my little sister behavior, since mom does not allow her to eat chocolate. Operant Conditioning known as Instrumental Conditioning: Was established by B.F.Skinner . However Skinner was also greatly influenced by the works of Ivan Pavlov on the conditioning reflux. (Skinner, 1970, cited in Ryckman, 2013, p. 360). Operant conditioning tries to contradict the belief that internal thoughts and mere inspirations which brings about learning in a behavior. Skinner thought that only exterior causes of behavior must be considered (Skinner, 1953, p. 65)) The term â€Å"operant† was used by Skinner in order to give us a good suggestion of his theory and how he used it: (Skinner, 1953, cited in Ryckman, 2013, p. 365). Reinforcement: Is a procedure of increasing the frequency rate of a behavior by means of awarding a stimulus soon after the demonstration of the behavior. The event that strengthens the probability of the behavior to be recurring is called a reinforcer. According to Skinner, reinforcement can take two forms, which are called positive and negative reinforcement (Skinner, 1953, cited in Ryckman, 2013, p. 367). Positive Reinforcement: When my mom wanted me to do the dishes, she would say to me â€Å"if you do the dishes for me, for the week than I will take you out shopping on Saturday†. Naturally we would spend the day shopping and she would spoil me, but eventually without her asking me to do the dishes for her. I realized that she was tired after work and the least I could do was help her with the dishes. Negative reinforcement occurs when a reply is reinforced because it is followed by the elimination of an unfriendly stimulus. Example cleaning the house to get rid of the mess or wearing a safety belt whist driving to prevent an annoying sound (Skinner, 1953, cited in Ryckman, 2013, p. 367). Negative Reinforcement: I hated the fact that I needed to drive with my safety belt on, and I found that the annoying noise of the seatbelt would not stop until I buckled up which is an aversive stimulus since it encourage me to fasten my seat belt. Until I fasten the seatbelt, the annoying sound persisted I could not get rid of the aversive stimuli. Now days when I get into the car, the first thing I do is put my safety belt on. In both positive and negative reinforcement, behavior is increased, however negative reinforcement plays a key role in both escaping learning and avoidance learning (Skinner, 1953, cited in Ryckman, 2013, p. 367). In escape learning, a being obtain a response that decrease or ends some aversive stimulation example: my little sister wearing her shoes before going outside to play, this leads to: Avoidance learning in which an entity obtains a response that stops some aversive stimulation from happening example putting on shoes before you get an ammonia. Avoidance learning is a good way to see how classical conditioning and operant conditioning work together to regulate behavior. An example, shoes my sister needs to put on before she goes outside and play might become a classical conditioning (CS) that elicits a fear of wearing shoes in her. However the response of putting on her shoes is an operant behavior. This response is strengthened through negative reinforcement, because it reduces the person’s fear of getting sick. Thus in avoidance learning a fear response is acquired through classical conditioning and an avoidance response is maintained by operant conditioning. Punishment Is a process whereby a stimulus is used after the presentation of behavior and cause the decline in the possibility of the behavior to reoccur. In contrast to reinforcement there are also consequences that decrease a being’s leaning to make a specific response. Positive punishment: Is the accumulation of something which affects the decrease in repeating the behavior that was displayed? Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when a favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs (Skinner, 1953, cited inRyckman, 2013, p. 368). When I was younger my sister and I slept in the same room and we often fought with each other about who slept on the top of the double bunk. Until my father got angry one day and sent us both to the naughty corner for two whole hours, and whilst sitting alone it decreased our behavior and we never fought again with each other about sleeping arrangements. Negative Punishment: Decreases the behavior from occurring, it is removing pleasant stimulus when someone is not doing the appropriate behavior. Eating food was one of my difficulties, since I rather looked forward to the deserts during super time, so I use to waste my food. Dad took away my spending and said I needed to learn to appreciate and feel what poor kids are going through. He even took me to the orphanage and I felt so bad, now I know not to waste food since there are so many kids out there who do not have food. My view on wasting food has changed. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING Is based on the work of Albert Bandura (1977). Bandura and his associates were able to exhibit through a variation of experimentations that the request of concerns was not necessary for learning to take place. Instead learning could happen through the simple procedure of observing someone else’s actions or behavior. This effort provided the basis for Bandura’s future work in social cognition ( Ohman Mineka, 2001, cited in Weiten, 2014, p. 252). Bandura expressed his findings in a four step design which includes a cognitive and an operant view of learning. Attention- to learn observation, you must pay attention to another person’s behavior and its environment. Retention- you may not have times to observe response for a long time. Hence the individual remembers what was noticed and must store a mental image of what he has witnessed in his memory. Reproduction- the action that the individual produces that is a replica of what was noticed. Motivation your motivation depends on whether you encounter the situation in which you believe that the response is likely to pay off for you (Weiten, 2013, p. 252). My eldest brother (fifteen years old) use to skip school and smoke cigarettes. Whilst my younger brother who was (twelve years old) at the time observed what he was doing. When my younger brother turned (fourteen) he stated smoking cigarettes too. Thereafter he started modelling my eldest brother’s behavior and he too started skipping school. Now both of them are addicted to smoking. I often hear both my brother’s saying that smoking is not good, yet they keep smoking. And when their friends come over, they smoke even worst. I cannot fully understand the need for their smoking. However I do know that it is not good for their health, it clogs their lungs and some people also dies of lung cancer, besides I hate the bad odor in there breathe. My eldest brother was a good athlete at college but these days he complains that he cannot run like he used to, because he suffers of short breath and he coughs a lot to. I constantly tell him to quit smoking and he would stop for a day or two, and he would become very frustrated and annoying to be around. Eventually I would say to him â€Å"you know, you should rather smoke because you are so annoying, your attitude really stinks† And he would say you know I cannot function without cigarettes it feels like my nerves are finished, I cannot even concentrate, I am trying to leave this addiction but it is not easy. Behavior Modification Is a therapeutic technique created by Skinner, a psychologist who is the â€Å"Father of Behaviorism.† Skinner established a theory of operant conditioning, whereby he states that all behavior is ruled by reinforcing and punishing stimuli. Behavior modification practices a planned approach that rewards wanted behavior and â€Å"punishes† unwanted behavior. This technique is used in therapy and is used in psychological settings. Behavior modification is now known as Applied behavior analysis (ABA) which is more logical (Kransner, 1970, cited in Ryckman, 2013, p. 375). How Behavior Modification is applied: Psychologists use behavior modification to treat disorders such as attention deficit disorder, autism etc. The basics of behavior modification are used to increase the desired behaviors in any specific person, regardless of functional level (Tanaka- Matsumi et al., 2002 cited in Corey2014, p. 254). For example, a person wants to quit smoking cigarettes; he may use behavioral methods to help attain those goals. Another example is, an individual who sees a shark and swims for his life, and he is not swimming fast because he is â€Å"scared.† Instead, he is swimming fast because he saw what happened to other’s who did not swim and who was eaten by the shark. The impulse to swim fast is a result of those that swam and did not live. In addition, the particular feeling of being â€Å"scared† is measured as a flight reflex, not a feeling. The heart races and adrenaline rises as the nervous system responds to the situation at hand. Hence, anything a person does can be directed to behavior modification. Reinforcement and Punishment The idea of reinforcement and punishment is often used in different ways, in behavior modification than in everyday linguistic. Whatever increases a behavior is a reflected reinforcement and whatever decreases the behavior is punishment. The complex part is that both reinforcement and punishment can have either a positive or negative outcome. Positive refers to whatever is added to the situation and negative is whatever is taken away from the situation (Watson Tharp, 1997, cited in Weiten, 2014, p. 260). Positive Reinforcement: When I was in school my mom would give me a huge hug and when I got really good marks she would reward me with presents for passing. Negative Reinforcement: My brother often did not do well at school, and he did not get any praises from my parents, instead my parents were disappointment and would often ground him. This is a negative reinforcement, because although he was not an academic student I feel my parents would still praise him and motivated him in whatever field he is good at. Punishment: Often my brother had to do the gardening for the duration of the school term in order for his grades to go up. This was dad’s way of punishing him positively. Mom use to take away his play station and his bicycle until his grades picked up. This was mom’s way of punishing him negatively (Weiten, 2014, p. 260). Behavior Modification in Everyday Life: According to Lazaras (1989) behavior modification may seem complicated, but in fact it is actually quite simple. If an individual is reinforced every single time he or she does something good, sooner or later the reinforcement will lose its power. When using this technique with general people, one should reinforce the desired outcome, with a consistency. Then as they start to respond, change your schedule of reinforcement to every third time, and they will do what you want. After a while, change it again to every fifth time until they do it automatically (Lazaras 1989 cited in Corey, 2014). Mom wanted dad to open the car door for her. When they went out shopping she carried all the bags and when she got to the car, dad noticed that her hands were filled and he opened the door for her. Once he opened the door, she looked at him in the eye and told him what an amazing person he is. After several times of her encouraging him to open the door, eventually he started opening the car door for her regularly. And once she noticed that he was opening the door for her she did not compliment him every time. However once in a while she would complement him. Conclusion Both cognitive processes and behavior modification has been used with good outcomes to help people with a wide variety of problems. These approaches makes use of tangible, involvements, because of the way problems are recognized .The major methods are logical and straightforward. References Corey, G. (2014). Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy (SA ed.). USA: Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning, Inc. Ryckman,R. M. (2013). Theories of Personality (10th, ed.). USA: International Edition, Cengage Learning. Corey, G. (1986).Theory and practice of group counselling and psychotherapy(3rd ed.). Monterey, CA Brooks/Cole. Weiten, W. (2014). Psychology Themes and Variations (SA. Ed.). Las Vegas, USA: Cengage Learning.

Stefan’s Diaries: Origins Chapter 28

â€Å"We need to act now,† Damon said when we reached the line of trees next to the field. The forest floor was slick with leaves, and there was no sound, not even of animals. I'd spent the last minutes desperately racking my brain, trying to think of some way to save Katherine. But I couldn't. Our only hope was to enter the fray, say a prayer for Pearl and Anna, then focus on freeing Katherine. It would be incredibly dangerous. But there was no other way. â€Å"Y es,† I replied with an authority I did not feel. â€Å"Are you ready?† Without waiting for an answer, I deftly moved toward the forest border, guided by the faint sound of angry shouting. I could see the outline of the estate. Damon crept by my side. Suddenly I saw a large burst of flames erupt from the carriage house. I gasped, but Damon simply glared at me. Just then, I heard the strident voice of Jonathan Gilbert. â€Å"Found another one!† I crept closer to the edge of the forest, until I had a full view of Jonathan slamming Henry from the tavern against the back of the police wagon. Noah held one of his arms, while another guard I didn't recognize held the other one. Jonathan held out his compass, frowning. â€Å"Stake him!† he said. The guard drew his bayonet back and thrust it into the center of Henry's chest. Blood spurted as Henry shrieked into the night air. Henry slumped to his knees, his eyes wide and staring down at the bayonet lodged in his body. I turned toward Damon, both of us realizing that we didn't have any time to waste. Damon bit his lip, and I knew we were in this together. Even though we often acted differently, when it counted we thought the same way. Maybe that–the shorthand communication we had as brothers–would be what would save us, and would save Katherine. â€Å"Vampires!† I yelled from the depths of the forest. â€Å"We found one! Help!† Damon called. Instantly, Noah and the other guard released their grip on Henry and ran toward us, their bayonets raised. â€Å"Over there!† Damon panted, pointing deep into the forest as the two guards stepped closer. â€Å"There was a man. We only saw a dark shadow, but he tried to attack my brother.† As if to illustrate his point, Damon traced the sticky path of blood that had pooled onto my collarbone from my neck. I reached my own hand to that spot in surprise. I'd forgotten that Katherine had bitten me. It seemed like a lifetime ago. The two guards looked at each other and nodded tersely. â€Å"Y boys shouldn't be out here ou without weapons. We've got some in the wagon,† without weapons. We've got some in the wagon,† Noah called, before charging into the forest. â€Å"Good,† Damon said, almost under his breath. â€Å"Let's go. And if you let me down, I'll kill you,† he said, breaking away toward the wagon. I followed him, moving wholly by adrenaline. We reached the unguarded wagon. Low moans came from the inside. Damon kicked the back of the wagon open and leapt up to the platform. I followed, gagging when I entered. The scent of the wagon was acrid, a combination of blood and vervain and smoke. Bodies writhed in corners, but the wagon was pitch-black, making it impossible to tell whether the figures were vampires or humans or a combination of the two. â€Å"Katherine!† Damon hissed, leaning down and roughly touching each of the bodies in his search for her. â€Å"Stefan?† a weak voice called from the corner, and I forced myself to not lash out, to not spit in the direction of the voice, to not stare into those villainous eyes and tell her I hoped she got exactly what she deserved. â€Å"Damon?† the voice broke. â€Å"Katherine. I'm here,† Damon whispered, making his way toward the far end of the wagon. I continued to stand, as if glued to the spot. As my eyes adjusted to the dim light, I began seeing things that were more terrible than anything I'd ever seen in my worst dreams. On the floor of the wagon were almost a dozen bodies, some of people who I recognized from around town. Henry, a few regulars from the saloon, and even Dr. Janes. Some of the bodies had stakes in them, others had muzzles over their mouths, their hands and feet bound and their mouths seemingly frozen in wide O's of horror; some were simply curled up as if they were already dead. The sight changed me, changed everything. I took off my hat and knelt down roughly, praying to God or whoever would listen to please save them. I remembered Anna's kitten-like cries, the dull fear in Pearl's eyes. Y they couldn't live here, but es, why did Father have to condone this brutal treatment? No one deserved to die like this, not even monsters. Why couldn't it be enough to simply run them out of town? Damon knelt down, and I rushed toward his side. Katherine was lying on her back, ropes binding her arms and legs. The ropes must have been covered with vervain, because there were terrible burns on the patches of skin that touched the twine. A leather mask covered her face, and her hair was matted with dried blood. I stood back, not wanting to touch her or even look at her, as Damon set to work untying the muzzle. Once she was free, I couldn't help but notice her teeth, her fangs, her true nature, obvious in a way I'd never seen before. But Damon was gazing at her as if in a trance. He gently brushed the hair off her face and slowly leaned in to kiss her lips. â€Å"Thank you,† said Katherine simply. That was it. And watching them, the way Katherine's fingers stroked Damon's hair, the way Damon cried into her collarbone, I knew that this was true love. As they continued to gaze into each other's eyes, I pulled my knife out of my pocket and gently tried to cut the ropes that bound her. I worked slowly and carefully, knowing that any additional contact with the ropes would cause her even more pain. â€Å"Hurry!† Damon whispered, sitting on his heels as he watched me work. I freed one arm, then another. Katherine sighed shakily, shrugging her shoulders up and down as if to make sure they still worked. â€Å"Help!† cried a pale, thin woman I didn't recognize. She was huddled in the very back of the wagon. â€Å"We'll be back,† I said, lying through my teeth. We wouldn't be back. Damon and Katherine had to escape, and I had to †¦ well, I had to help them. â€Å"Stefan?† Katherine said weakly as she struggled to her feet. Damon instantly rushed to her side and supported her fragile body. Just then, I heard footfalls near the wagon. â€Å"Escape!† one of the guards called. â€Å"We need backup. There's been a breach in the wagon!† â€Å"Run!† I called, pushing Damon and Katherine in the opposite direction of the guard. â€Å"No escape! All clear!† I shouted into the darkness, hoping that people would believe me as I hopped off the wagon. I saw the explosion of gunpowder before I heard the shot. A loud wail rent the night air, followed quickly by another booming shot. Heart in my throat, I ran around the wagon, already knowing what I'd see. â€Å"Damon!† I cried. He lay on the ground, blood oozing from his gut. Yanking off my shirt, I put the linen on the wound to stanch the bleeding. I knew it was no use, but still I held the fabric to his chest. â€Å"Don't shut your eyes, brother. Stay with me.† â€Å"No †¦ Katherine. Save her †¦,† Damon rasped, his head flopping toward the damp ground. I glanced, wild-eyed, from the truck to the woods. The two guards were sprinting back, Jonathan Gilbert behind them. I stood up, and instantly my body was met with the explosive, piercing, agonizing hit of a bullet. I felt my chest exploding, felt the cool night air whoosh past my body as I fell back, onto my brother. I opened my eyes and looked up at the moon, and then everything faded to black.